Lia Laela Sarah, Andi Suhandi, Cepi Riyana, Nanang Winarno, Mohd Zaidi Bin Amiruddin, Kristóf Fenyvesi
This study developed a low-cost, open-source solar cell bifocal modeling tool that integrates an Arduino-based sensor device with a Unity 3D visualization platform. In this system, real-time voltage, current, and irradiance data from the solar panel are acquired using sensors and directly visualized in a dynamic 3D/2D representation of electron movement within the cell’s energy bands. The developed tool is evaluated for system functionality, reliability, and validity against the instruments’ standard datasheet. The results demonstrate high accuracy, with Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) values of 0.6%, 6.43%, and 5.97% for the voltage, current, and light intensity, respectively, all within the valid category. This consistent performance enables accurate representation of current–voltage (I-V) characteristics under various illumination levels. The results show that the efficiency measurement values are close to manufacturer specifications at moderate-to-high light intensities. By combining direct experimental data with synchronized microscopic visualization, the proposed bifocal modeling tool for this solar cell concept enables students to directly connect the measured electrical output to the underlying semiconductor process and bridge macro-and microscopic perspectives in optoelectronics education. © 2026 IOP Publishing Ltd. All rights, including for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies, are reserved. This article is available under the terms of the https://publishingsupport.iopscience.iop.org/iop-standard/v1.
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Bandung, Indonesia; University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
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