Elih Sudiapermana, Yanti Shantini, Ifa Hanifah Misbach, Asep Deni Gustiana, Ma Arsenia C. Gomez
Non-Formal Education (NFE) is essential for expanding access to education in developing countries, particularly Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand. This study compares NFE policies and resource management strategies in these three nations, analysing their legal frameworks and challenges in achieving inclusivity. Using a qualitative approach, data were gathered through document analysis, stakeholder interviews and policy reviews. Findings reveal that while all three countries have established NFE policies, challenges persist, including limited funding, unequal resource distribution and teacher shortages. Indonesia's decentralised model allows flexibility but struggles with quality consistency. Philippines' hybrid Alternative Learning System (ALS) faces accessibility issues in remote areas. Thailand's centralised system emphasises vocational learning but has difficulties reaching ethnic minorities. To enhance NFE, Indonesia expands digital learning, the Philippines employs mobile units and Thailand integrates technology into vocational training. Strengthening public-private partnerships, digital platforms and policy coordination is crucial for sustainable and inclusive education. Copyright © 2026 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.
Department of Community Education, Faculty of Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, West Java, Bandung, Indonesia; Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, West Java, Bandung, Indonesia; Department of Early Childhood Education Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, West Java, Bandung, Indonesia; Department of Social Science Education, Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, Philippine Normal University, Manila, Philippines
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